Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior 10 e Hellriegel and Slocum

Chapter 6 - Motivating Individuals for High Performance

Unit6

1. Model of Goal Setting and Performance
   Goals are future outcomes (results) that individuals and groups desire and strive to achieve. Goal Setting is the process of specifying what the goals will be.
   1. Importance of Goal Setting
      Goals guide and direct behavior. Goals provide challenges and indicators against which team or person can judge performance. Goals justify performance of various tasks. Goals define the basis for Organization's design. Goals serve an organizing function. Goals reflect where employees and mangers alike consider important.
      Locke and Latham developed a model of individual goal settings and performance that we will now look at.
   2. challenge
      Two key attributes for goals:
      • Goal difficulty
        Goal needs to be challenging but not impossible
      • Goal Clarity
        It must be clear and specific or it is on no use to the person trying to seek them.
      
      One method used is Management by Objective which uses goals to define what the person needs to reach.
      Self-efficacy is important also. It is the belief that a person can perform at a certain level in a situation.
   3. Moderators
      Four factors that moderate the ability to meet the goals:
      
      • Ability
        The person must have the ability to do the task
      • Goal Commitment
        The individual's determination to reach a goal. Public stated goals are stronger than private ones, Ones set by person or by person with management input are more likely met than one imposed my management. Ones that have a useable reward also have greater chance of being met.
      • Feedback
        Person needs feedback on how they are doing on meeting goals.
      • Task Complexity
   4. Mediators
      
      • Direction of attention
        Steers person away from irrelevant activities
      • effort
        Greater the difficulty the more person will have to exert effort if willing to achieve.
      • persistence
        Desire to work on a task over the long term.
      • Task strategy
        How a person decides to do a task.
   5. Performance
      performance can be met when the previous three have been done. Sometimes due to problems on job, a code of ethics needs to be developed.
   6. Rewards
      Once a performance level has been reached rewards should be used. They can be external (vacations, bonuses), or internal (achievement feeling, pride). Different cultures look on the rewards differently so be careful with cross cultural management.
   7. Satisfaction
      This is not the organizations satisfaction, but the employee's. Due to circumstances, it may be necessary to compromise, especially with goals set to high.
   8. The Effect of Goal Setting on Motivation and Performance
      
      1. Encourages people to develop action plans to reach goals
      2. Focuses people's attention on the goal relevant actions
      3. Causing people to exert the effort necessary to achieve goals.
      4. spurirng people to persist in face of obstacles
   9. Limitations to Goal Setting
      Goal setting will not work if person lacks skills to meet goals. Complicated tasks that require large amounts of learning may take longer. Rewarding wrong behavior can lead to problems (even illegal activity).
   10. Organizational Use
       Satisfaction and commitment to organization result when challenges are met.


2. Reward Systems For High Performance
   Rewards, to be useful, should be:
   • Available 0 too small a reward is as good as no reward (think pay increase)
   • Timely - should be close to behavior it is trying to reinforce.
   • Performance Contingency - closely linked to performance
   • Durable - some rewards last longer than others, think autonomy v. pay increase
   • Equity - pay policies are equitable to all.
   • visibility - rewards must be visible to all.
   1. Gain-Sharing Programs
      Rewards people who reach specific goals but formula can be too complex
   2. Profit-Sharing Programs
      Rewards organizational performance but people might not see their impact on organization
   3. Skill-Based Pay
      Rewards people who acquire skills but cost can increase or employee can top out.
   4. Flexible Benefit Plans
      Benefits tailored to individual but higher cost to administer program.
   5. Organizational Use
      Management needs to look at trade offs discussed above.

1. Introduction to SQL
   SQL meets ideal database language requirements because it is a data definition language and has a data manipulation language, as well as it is fairly easy to learn. ANSI/ISO has described a standard SQL. Even so, there are many dialects of the SQL language.
2. Data Definition Commands
   
   
   1. The DataBase Model
      Model we will follow is simple but since this is notes not needed to be reproduced now.
   2. The Tables and Their Components
      again, we have details about the sample data not necessary to take notes on.
   3. Creating the Database and Table Structures
      To create a data base we use the following structure: CREATE SCHEMA AUTHORIZATION <creator>;
      example Jones is creator CREATE SCHEMA AUTHORIZATION JONES;
   4. Creating Table Structures
      With the creation of the database we need to create tables. We will need to determine the components of the tables and what type of data they are (date, number, string). To do this we would use the CREATE TABLE command, the format would look like this (note: we would have as many attributes as needed).
      CREATE TABLE <table name>(
      <attribute1 name and attribute1 characteristics,
      attribute2 name and attribute2 characteristics,
      attribute3 name and attribute3 characteristics,
      primary key designation,
      foreign key designation and foreign key requirements>);
      Though we use one line per a attribute, it is not necessary as long as commas are there. It makes it easier to read and debug if done this way. If a table is using a foreign key, the table that it refers to should be created first. Sample table creation

      
      CREATE  TABLE VENDOR(
      V_CODE            INTEGER             NOT NULL     UNIQUE,
      V_NAME           VARCHAR(35)    NOT NULL,
      V_CONTACT    VARCHAR(15)    NOT NULL,
      V_AREACODE CHAR(3)              NOT NULL,
      V_PHONE         CHAR(8)              NOT NULL,
      V_STATE         CHAR(2)              NOT NULL,
      V_ORDER        CHAR(1)              NOT NULL,
      PRIMARY KEY (V_CODE);
      

      
      Foregin keys would be created in another table and refered back to this one. Example: FOREIGN KEY (V_Code) REFERENCES VENDOR if this had been vendor table. NOT NULL means the item has to have a value to it, UNIQUE means it has to be a unique value in the table. Anything in () defines the values that are made. For example V_CODE is one character. It is not a good idea to give the column names (the attributes) anything that has a mathematical symbol in it. They can cause confusion.
   5. Using Domains
      Domains are permissable sets of values that can be in a row/column combination. We use the CREATE DOMAIN command to do this.
      CREATE DOMAIN <domain_name> AS DATA_TYPE
      [DEFAULT <default_value>]
      [CHECK (<condition>)]
      
      Example marital status:
      CREATE DOMAIN MARITAL_STATUS AS VARCHAR(8)
      CHECK (VALUE IN('Single','Divorced','Widowed'));
      
      This now creates a variable type that you could use.
      
      To remove this Domain later we: DROP DOMAIN <domain_name> [RESTRICT | CASCADE]
      CASCADE when used will change the type in the table that was used in creating the domain. RESTRICT will keep you from deleteing the DOMAIN untill no atributes are based on it. (NOTE: some RDBMSs do not support domains)
   6. SQL Integrity Constraints
      To maintain integrity, we use two commands ON DELETE RESTRICT which will not let us delete a row if it will effect another table (Vendor list for example - deleting it would make a product list have no vendor for an item). ON UPDATE CASCADE however forces changes to any other table that relies on it if changes are made to it.
3. Data Manipulation Commands
   Common SQL Commands:
   

   Command	Description
   INSERT	Lets you insert into a table, one row at a time. Used to make the initial data entries into a new tabel structure that already contains data.
   SELECT	List the table contents. Actually SELECT is a query command rather than a data management command. Nevertheless SELECT is introduced in this section because it lets you check the results of your data management efforts
   COMMIT	Lets you save your work to the disk
   UPDATE	Enables you to make changes in the data.
   DELETE	Enables you to delete one or more rows.
   ROLLBACK	Restoes the database table contents to their original conditions (Since last COMMIT)

   1. Data Entry
      INSERT INTO <table name> VALUES(attribute1 value, attribute 2 value, ... etc.);
      Example
      INSERT INTO VENDOR
      VALUES (21225, 'Bryson, Inc.','Smithson',615',223-3234','TN','Y');
      String and date values are between apostraphes (') except dates in Access (uses pound sign #) If necessary and no value has been provided put NULL in the place of the data that would go in (but only if NOT NULL is not in the table creation).
   2. Saving the Table Contents
      COMMIT <table name>; will save the changes to the table.
   3. Listing the Table Contents
      Use the SELECT command with the porper attributes to get the information that you need. To get all the results of a PRODUCT table you would use
      SELECT * FROM PRODUCT;
      You could also use individual column names as well to only display that information.
   4. Making a Correction
      To update a particular piece of information
      UPDATE PRODUCT SET (attribute = value [,attribut2=value2,attribute3 = value3]) WHERE (other attribute = value);
   5. Restoring the Table Contents
      ROLLBACK takes table changes back to what they were after last save.
   6. Deleting Table Rows
      DELETE FROM <table name> WHERE <attribute = value>;


4. Queries
   

   To Be Continued

   
   
   
   
   1. Partial Listing of Table Contents
   
   
   2. Logical Operators: And, Or, and Not
   
   
   3. Special Operators
   
   
   
   


5. Advanced Data Management Commands
   
   
   
   1. Changing a Column's Data Type
   
   
   2. Changing Attribute Characteristics
   
   
   3. Dropping a Column
   
   
   4. Entering Data into the New Column
   
   
   5. Arithmetic Operators and the Rule of Precedence
   
   
   6. Copying Parts of a Table
   
   
   7. Deleting a Table from the Database
   
   
   8. Primary and Foreign Key Designations
   
   
   
   


6. More Complex Queries and SQL Functions
   
   
   
   1. Ordering a Listing
   
   
   2. Listing Unique Values
   
   
   3. Aggregate Functions in SQL
   
   
   4. Grouping Data
   
   
   5. Virtual Tables: Creating a View
   
   
   6. SQL Indexes
   
   
   7. Joining Database Tables
   
   
   
   


7. Updated Views


8. Procedural SQL
   
   
   
   1. Triggers
   
   
   2. Stored Procedures
   
   
   3. PL/SQL Stored Functions
   
   
   
   


9. Converting an E-R Model into a Database Structure


10. General Rules Governing Relationships Among Tables

Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior 10e Hellriegel/Slocum

Chapter 5 Achiving Motavation in the Workplace

Unit 5

1. The Basic Motivational Process
   There are four basic needs that need to be addressed in what motivates people. They are 1) meeting basic human needs, 2) Designing jobs that motivate people, 3) enhancing the belief that rewards can be achieved, and 4) treating people equitably. Unless these are met there can be no motivation. Motivation is the forces acting on or within a person that causes the person to behave in a specific goal-directed manner. motivation is not to be confused with performance. A highly motivated person can perform poorly if he or she does not have adequate skills.
   1. Core Phases of the Process
      Performance can be be put simply as a function of a persons ability times their motivation. You cannot do a task unless you have the ability, the talent to perform a goal-related task. The person must want to achieve this as well. To start this process we identify the persons needs deficiencies that a person is experiencing at a time. They break down to psychological (recognition), physiological (air, food) or social (friendship). Needs create tension that a person seeks to eliminate. Motivation is goal directed. A Goal is a specific result that an individual wants to achieve. These can be a driving force behind a person.
   2. Motivational challenges
      In concept, motivation is straight forward and simple. In reality it is not. First motivations can only be inferred, not seen. Second, the needs of a person are dynamic and change over time. Lastly there are differences in what motivates people. A manager needs to know what motivates his people and then do something about it.
2. Motivating Employees Through Meeting Human Needs
   1. Needs Hierarchy Model
      Abraham Maslow suggested a needs Hierarchy with four assumptions.
      • When a need has been satisfied, its role in motivation goes down., but another will need to come up.
      • Needs network is complex with many needs affecting behavior. Emergency needs take precedence though.
      • Lower level needs must be met before higher level needs can be met.
      • There are more ways to satisfy higher level needs then their are higher level ones.
      There are five types of needs:
      1. Physiological: need for food, water, air, etc. These are the lowest level of needs. People will take any job that meets these needs. Managers that motivate this way assume people work only for money.
      2. Security Needs: safety, stability, etc. If these needs are not met, like physiological needs, people will be preoccupied with meeting them.
      3. Affiliation Needs: friendship, love, etc. When first two are met, people will look for a sense of belonging. Managers who believe that people are needing this will act in a supportive mode.
      4. Esteem needs: self-worth and recognition from others. These people want others to accept them for what they are and to look at them as competent and able. (Read Mary Kay Cosmetic sales force)
      5. Self-Actualization needs: These people strive to increase their problem solving abilities.
      Using Maslow's Needs Hierarchy
      The three lowest are called deficiency needs. If not met a person cannot grow into a healthy person. The last two are growth needs. Satisfaction here helps a person grow. These needs are really based on US cultural values. Top managers are able to satisfy their own growth needs than are lower level managers.
   2. achievement Motivation Model
      David McClelland proposed a learned needs model of motivation that he believes is rooted in culture. Everyone had three important needs: achievements, affiliation and power. Those who have strong power motive take action that affect the behavior of others. Those with strong affiliation motive tend to establish relationships with others. those with strong achievement motive compete against standards of excellence or against behaviors and achievements. These are influenced by childhood, personal and occupational experiences and the types of organizations they work for. These motives are stored in the preconscious mind, just below full awareness and can be determined by how a person interprets an unstructured picture called a Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT).
      Characteristics of High achievers Self motivators tend to have three characteristics. They like to set their own goals. They prefer moderate goals, ones that can be achieved but not with out a small challenge. They lastly prefer tasks that provide immediate feedback.
      Financial Incentives - The effect of money had a mixed effect on high achievers. Though they will not stay at a place that does not pay them well, routine or boring tasks will drive them away as well. They need something to motivate them as well as the money.
3. Motivating Employees Through Job Design
   Frederick Herzberg developed another model, the motivator-hygiene model.
   1. Motivational Factors
      Motivator factors include the work itself, recognition, advancement, and responsibility. They are intrinsic factors which are directly related to the job and internal to individual.
   2. Hygiene Factors
      Hygiene factors are company policies and administrations, salary, benefits, etc. They are extrinsic factors that server as rewards.
      Cultural Influences In US 80% of factors that lead to job satisfaction can be traced it to motivators. In other cultures this can change.
      Using Motivators and Hygienes This model appeals to managers as it gives straighforward suggestions on motivating people. But it has critics as well. One was the method bound process that was used to develop it. Another is it is unclear if satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate parts.
4. Motivating Employees Through Performance Expectations
   1. Expectancy Model
      The expectancy model says that people are motivated to work when they expect to achieve things they want from their jobs. Four assumptions are made here.
      • A combination of forces in the individual and the environment determine behavior.
      • Individuals decide their own behaviors even though organizations may place constraints are placed on individual behavior
      • Individuals have different needs and goals. Also they change over time
      • People decide among alternatives based on their perceptions of whether a specific behavior will lead to a desired outcome.
      There are things to help us understand things, they are called First-level and second-level outcomes, expectancy, valance, and instrumentality
      First-Level and Second-Level Outcomes Behavior associated with the job itself are first-level outcomes. Second-level outcomes are the positive or negative rewards associated with them.
      Expectancy If a person gives a particular level of effort, a certain level of performance should result, that is called expectancy. It can vary from 0, no chance, to 1 the fact that it will.
      Instrumentality This is the relationship between first-level and second-level outcomes. Ranges are -1 to +1. -1 indicates an inverse relationship, +1 indicates a normal relationship. 0 indicates there is no relation at all.
      Valance is the preference for a particular second level outcome. It is not just the level of reward, but what it means to the person receiving it. Negative outcomes, (lay offs), are ones to avoid. If it is 0 it does not affect things. Positive levels are preferable.
      Putting it all Together People expert work effort to achieve performance that leads to valued work-related outcomes.
      The Expectancy Model in Action If one studies hard, take good notes, attend classes regularly, then you can expect good grades. But maybe you only believe that you have a 20% chance of doing well. Then you will lower your effort. There are problems with this model because it makes wide assumptions and works best in cultures that emphasize internal attribution (like the US).
5. Motivating Employees Through Equity
   1. Equity Model:Balancing Inputs and Outcomes
      The equity model says that an individuals feelings of how she is treated in comparisons with others. It has 2 assumptions. 1) people evaluate interpersonal relationships like they would some product they are buying. 2) people do not operate in a vacuum. they make comparisons to what is going on around them.
      General Equity Model based on two variables: inputs and outcomes. Inputs are what an individuals contribute to exchanges. Outcomes are what the individual receives from they exchange. Multiple inputs and outcomes can muddle situations.
      Consequences of Inequity Inequity causes tension. Tension is not pleasure. People are motivated to get rid of inequity.
   2. Procedural Justice: Making Decisions Fairly
      The fairness of rules and procedures is referred to as procedural justice. A strong example would be people who survive a layoff. Those left behind can judge the fairness of the layoff in how it was handled. If fair, then people will feel more committed to the company.
6. Chapter Summary
7. Developing Competencies

Principles of Marketing

Principles of Marketing 10e

Chapter 5 Managing Marketing Information

Unit 5

1. Assessing Marketing Information Needs
   Marketing Information Systems balance the information users would like to have against what they need to have to do their job. occasionally the information may not be available. For that research may need to be done.
2. Developing Marketing Information
   1. Internal Data
      Internal databases are electronic collections of information obtained from data sources within the company. They are usually accessed more quickly and cheaply. One problem is that the data may not the meet then needs as it may have been collected for other needs.
   2. Marketing Intelligence
      Marketing Intelligence is the systematic collection and analysis of publicly available information about competitors and developments in the marketing environment. This information is available from many different sources. Some can even be word of mouth or just direct observation. Others can be legal but questionable such as searching publicly available dumpsters to get information on the company.
   3. Marketing Research
      Marketing researchis the systematic design, collection, analysis, and reporting of data relevant to a specific marketing situation facing an organization. Some companies have departments that focus on doing this. Smaller companies and sometimes these companies will use marketing and research companies.
      1. Defining the Problem and Research Objectives
         This is the hardest thing to do. You may bring your own bias as to why the problem exist and it may not be the right question asked. To do this you need to do one of three types of research. 1)Exploratory research which is research to gather preliminary information that will help define problems and suggest hypotheses. 2)Descriptive research, research to better describe marketing problems, situations, or markets, such as the market potential for a product or the demographics and attitudes of consumers. 3)Casual Research research to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships.
      2. Developing the Research Plan
         Research objectives will need to be translated into specific information needs. This may be demographic information, usage patterns, attitudes as well as other things. The plan should be developed in to a written proposal. Both primary and secondary data will need to be collected.
      3. Gathering Secondary Data
         Secondary data information that already exist somewhere, having been collected for another purpose. Can be internal or can be purchased. For examples, grocery stores, especially ones with bonus clubs, can sell register information of what sells at what time. There are also online databases that can provide information like CompuServe, Dialog, and LEXIS-NEXIS. This type of data can present problems in that the needed information may not be available, or if available it is not usable. Researchers need to make sure that the information is accurate, relevant, current and impractical.
      4. Primary Data Collection
         • Research Approaches
           Observational research gathering of primary data by observing relevant people, actions and situations. Observers might go to a supermarket and observer the way people make purchasing decisions. Things can be observed by mechanical means as well (people meters on tv ratings machines). Cookies on a computer is another way of doing this. The most widely used method to collect this information is to ask them directly and is called survey research. Another information source is single-source data systems, electronic monitoring system that link consumers to television advertisements and promotions (measured using meters) with what they buy in stores (measured using check out scanners). Lastly experimental research is done. This is the gathering of primary data by selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them controlling related factors and checking for differences in group responses.
         • Contact Methods
           Information can be collected many ways. While mail questionnaires can prevent interviewers bias, they can take a long time to get back or may not come back at all. Telephone interviews are a good way but very often they can be confused with telemarketers, who have developed the questionnaire technique as a way to sell products. It is also higher in cost. Personal interviews, can come in individual and groups. Both involve talking with people directly and can be the most costly way of doing things. Group interviewing is sometimes done as focus groups. Lastly is Online (Internet) marketing research. This can be done in many ways.
         • Sampling Plan
           A sample is a segment of the population selected for marketing research to represent the population as a whole. One must decide three things in making this group; who should be interviewed, how many people should be interviewed, and how should they be chosen. These are often broken up into probability samples (random) and nonprobability samples (not random).
         • Research Instruments
           questionnaires and mechanical devices are the two instruments used by researchers. questionnaires are mot popular and they come in open and closed ended questions. Closed questionnaires tend to give you a collection of answers to choose from. Open ones let the respondent answer questions in their own words. researchers need to be careful in how the questions are worded and in what order as these can lead to biases.
      5. Implementing the Research Plan
         At this point collecting and processing the information should take place. Care should be taken to not let erroneous information be gathered.
      6. Interpreting and Reporting the Findings
         Once all done, conclusions need to be drawn. Managers and researchers need to work together with this to prevent bias from either group.
3. Analyzing Marketing Information
   1. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
      CRM is managing detailed information about individual customers and carefully managing customer "touch points" in order to maximize customers loyalty. It consists of software that analyzes information in the company. The information is usually stored in data warehouses and is dug through using data mining techniques. The information should be kept in a secure location. For others to use this information could violate privacy.
4. Distributing and Using Marketing Information
   This information needs to be made available to people in the company so that they can make use of it. Usually this is set up with an intranet, an internal internet. Sometimes it can be used with suppliers in an extranet .
5. Other Marketing Information Consideration
   1. Marketing Research in Small Business and Not-for-Profit Organizations
      Small business can do marketing research in a simple way, Observe things! Watch their competitors ads, watch how many people are in their own store at any given time, go into competitors businesses to see how things are done. Another thing would be simple experiments, changing ads to see what works is one thing. Lastly, libraries can be be a good source of information.
   2. International Marketing Research
      International research can be a little bit more troublesome. Translations of the questionnaires can have problems when some idioms get translated. There may be some bias when it comes to answering questions to show the people are higher up the economics ladder than they are, or to not answer personal questions.
   3. Public Policy and Ethics in Marketing Research
      • Intrusions on Consumer Privacy
        Companies collecting data should not distribute personal information without permission of the people that information comes from, This becomes a matter of consumer privacy being violated. While it is OK to pass the information on in aggregate form, the collection and selling of this personal information can lead to trouble. Large companies may need to hire a Privacy officer who makes sure that the information is used appropriately.
      • Misuse of Research Findings
        By not designing the questions properly, or leaving out key information, some studies can be biased the wrong way. This needs to be watched for.