Fundamentals of Supervision

Book: Supervision: Key Link to Productivity 8e, Rue, Leslie and Byaas, Lloyd
Chapter 4 - Ethics and Organizational Politics

1. Ethics in the Workplace
   Ethics are standards or principles of conduct that govern the behavior of an individual or a group of individuals. A major problem in discussing them is that not every one agrees what is or is not ethical. A majority of the people in the workforce have felt that they have been pressured into acting unethically.


2. Code of Ethics
   A Code of Ethics is a written statement of principles that should be followed in the conduct of business. It generally will include things like payments of questionable nature, meals, gifts, and involvement in political activities. This code must be communicated to all employees.


3. Setting the Tone
   A supervisor should be the one that sets the tone for things. He should not tell people what to do but should be the one to set the example of what is to be done.


4. Areas Requiring Ethical Conduct by Supervisors
   
   
   1. Loyalty
      Where does the loyalties of the supervisor lie. If a supervisor is perceived as being interested in his own self interest, he will not be able to get the cooperation of his employees
   
   
   2. Human Relations
      Is a supervisor consistent in the way he treats employees? Does he deal with employees differently depending on the situation or group? Does he play favorites? How about his supervisors. Is there ways that he treat different supervisors in different ways?
   
   
   3. Overt Personal Actions
      This covers all other ares, especially the ones that may not be covered by company policy.


5. Dealing with Dishonest Employees
   The first step in dealing with a dishonest employee is admitting that you have one. To many supervisors do not admit to it. The next step would be to gather proof that the employee is acting in a dishonest way. When facts are gathered: 1)recognize the problem, 2) confront the employee 3) follow established disciplinary system. In sealing with peers and other managers would be different, but you should still get evidence. In this case you should give it to a supervisor to handle, and if possible problems with your employees should be passed on to them as well. Do not do nothing. Problems start small and get bigger. It will not go away on its own.
   
   
   1. Whistle-Blowing
      Whistle-blowing is the attempt by an employee or former employee to disclose what they belive to be as wrongdoing in or by the organization. In doing so, the person puts them self at risk. Federal law is set up to protect the whistle-blower.


6. Building a Supervisory Power Base
   Power is the ability to get others to respond favorably to instructions and orders, the ability you have over others to do what you ask. How does one increase their power base (ethically):
   Gain the Respect of Subordinates
   If subordinates respect you they will stand up for you in a time of crisis. This will be interpreted as a sign of power by others.
   Help Employees Be Successful
   This also promotes loyalty by your employees. If they believe that their supervisors are supportive and want them to succeed, they will want to please the supervisor.
   Be "in Good" with Your Boss
   Subordinates and peers will notice if you are in good with your boss.
   Seek Responsibility
   Responsibility is accountability for reaching objectives, using resources properly and adhering to organizational policy. Seek it out rather than wait for it to come to you. Others will sense you have power when you seek accountability.


7. Organization Politics
   Organizational politics is the practice of using means other than merit or good performance for bettering your position or seeking favor in the organization. It does not have to be sneaky or under handed.
   
   
   1. How to Keep Your Boss Happy
      Know your boss What makes him or her tick? It will help you in helping him or her.
      Be Loyal Defend boss when criticized, even when you do not agree 100%. Do not talk about boss behind back (it always comes back to you).
      Show Respect for Your boss Be on time for meetings and things of that nature. Listen to him respectfully. If you disagree with him on a subject do so in a tactful way.
      Seize Opportunities to Make Your Boss Look Good
      Avoid Antagonizing Other Departments
      Insist on Feedback Be able to accept negative feedback as part of this. Seek out opinions on how you have done things on a project, right or wrong. Do not depend on formal reviews.
      Help Take the Load off Your Boss Volunteer solutions to a problem. Talk about what has been accomplished not how bad things are.


8. Socializing with Other Members of the Organization
   Let things, take there course. Use common sense. Be yourself. Do not try to use rank. Do not make work-related promises with subordinates while socializing. Do not date or become romantically involved with subordinates.

Systems Analysis and Design

Book: Systems Analysis and Design 6e Kendell & Kendall

Chapter 4 Information Gathering: Interactive Methods

1 Interviewing
The first step in interviewing is to discover where your own biases are. Interviews are in the question and answer format. But you do need to get the feelings of the interviewee. Seek their opinion. They know the organization better than you do. They have the information needed to make the project success. The interviewee is probably a stranger to you, so you will need to build up trust with them. This is done by preparation.
A. Five Steps in Interview Preparation
I. Read background material.
Check web sites, annual reports, etc. to get information on the organization.
II. Establishing Interviewing Objectives
Use the information to establish objectives.
III. Decide Whom to Interview
Strive for balance in whom you interview. Do it at many levels in the organizations.
IV. Prepare the Interviewee
Call or e-mail the person to prepare them. If detailed interview, send them questions to prepare.
V. Decide on Question Types and Structures
Decide on what type of questions and type of interview.
B. Question Types
I. Open-Ended Questions
Responses can be two words or two hundred. The interviewee responds how they feel best. Benefits include; interviewee is put at ease, interviewer can pick up jargon of interviewee, more interesting for the interviewee, more spontaneity, if caught unprepared it is a good technique. Drawbacks include; answers may contain too much and irrelevant information, chance of losing control of interview, looks like interviewer is unprepared, looks like interviewer is on 'fishing expedition'.
II. Closed Questions
The questions are answered with detailed facts. It limits the ability of the interviewee to respond. Special type is bipolar question. This is a yes or no type of question. Benefits include; saving time, ease in comparing interviews, control of interview, gets to relevant data. Drawbacks include; boring for the interviewee, missing the rich detail, no rapport built.
III. Third type is a probe question. You get the interviewee to clarify earlier question. Do not be afraid to use this question.
C. Arranging Questions in a Logical Sequence
I. Using a Pyramid Structure
Start with specific questions and go to the more general questions. Use it if interviewee needs to warm up to you
II. Using a Funnel Structure
Starts with the more open ended and ends with the specific ones. Good for the interviewee needs to have the freedom to express things because of emotional nature of interview.
III. Using a Diamond-Shaped Structure
Combines the two, starts with pyramid to get things go with closed questions. Works its way to pen questions and then starts the funnel and narrows them down to closed questions.
D. Writing the Interview Report
After you are done write up your notes on the interview. Type to review the report with the interviewee to make sure you got things correct and to show you are interested in their opinion.
2. Joint Application Design
Developed by IBM JAD is used when time (and money) is of the essence. It requires proper training to be able to run a session.
A. Conditions that support the use of JAD
I. Users want something new not standard answers
II. Organizational culture supports joint-problem solving behaviors across the organization
III. One on one interviews will not generate enough ideas
IV. Workflow allows for absence of key employees
B. Who is Involved
Several people will be involved. One IS analyst should be in the group. You as the project analyst will be there. Eight to a dozen people should be involved, including analysts, users and executives. They should be above clerical level. One scribe should be there from IS department.
C. Where to Hold JAD Meetings
They should not be held in the office but someplace where there will be few interruptions. It should only be held when all participants are available. If possible do a pre meeting about a week ahead so that everyone will know what is expected of them.
D. Accomplishing a Structured Analysis of Project Activities
All the questions brought forth should be asked the five Ws: Who, what, where, why and how.
E. Potential Benefits of Using JAD in Place of Traditional Interviewing
I. Time savings
II. Rapid development
III. Improves ownership of information system
IV. Creative development.
F. Potential Drawbacks of Using JAD
I. Large block of time commitment
II. If preparation is inadequate, or if follow up not done properly, results will be unsatisfactory
III. Organization may not be mature enough to do a JAD
3. Using Questionnaires
When people are wide spread or need to do things in their own time, a survey or questionnaire might be a good tool. In using those questions must generally be closed in nature if quick turn around time is desired.
1. Planning for the Use of Questionnaires
A proper questionnaire can take some time to develop. You must decide on what you are trying to find out. Once that is done decide on the type of questions
2. Writing Questions
Questions need to be really clear since interaction is generally impossible. Make sure that your questions if they are open ended are not too broad. Anticipate what they will answer. Use closed question whey you are able to list the items that they could respond with. One also has to be careful with the choice of words on a questionnaire. Make sure to use the language of the company (do they call them managers or supervisors). If necessary ask a test group to help you out with the correct wording.
3. Using Scales in Questionnaires
I Measurement - there are two different ways to scale your answers, nominal scales and interval scales. Nominal gives you a list and you pick from it. You then tally up the numbers for each item. Interval scales let the respondent chose from one extreme to the other, usually with a number scale.
II. Validity and Reliability - Make sure that the questions measure what they are intended to measure. If they do they are valid surveys. Reliability deals with consistency. If you took the survey again you should get the same results.
III. Constructing Scales - Problems are of three types
a) Leniency - easy raters which will move the average off of where it should be. This can be counteracted by moving the mid point to left or right of center.
b) Central Tendency - Everyone rates things as average.
c) Halo Effect - people take impressions formed and carry them on to the next question.
4. Designing the Questionnaires
Make sure there is enough white space, and allow ample room to write responses. Make it easy to mark their answers and be consistent in style. Cluster items of similar content together as well as put stuff important to respondent at the beginning. Controversial stuff should be at the end.
5. Administering Questionnaires
I. Respondents - Decide who will get the questionnaire. Make sure there is enough of a sample to be a fair representation. Remember many will not return the forms.
II. Methods of Administering Questionnaire - One should pick best way to distribute questionnaires. Most common is to let them self administer it, though this results in lower response rates. It is used the most because it allows the anonymity that many people want. Another method is to do it by email or web site.

Systems Analysis and Design

Book: Systems Analysis and Design 6e Kendell & Kendall

Chapter 3 Determing Feasability and Managing Analysis and Design Activities

Project Initiation
Can come from many different sources. They come because people see problems that need fixing and people see opportunities for improvement in the way things are done.
Problems in the Organization
It is wise not to think of problems as that, but as situations in which objectives can get help in being met. Many of these problems will be noticed when feedback is given in the system. The feedback can often come from outside the organization.
Selection of Projects
Projects should not be chosen for political purposes, or to gain power in the organization. Remember that any change in one part of an organization will affect other parts of the organization. Criteria for taking on a project should be as follows.
Backing from management - the people that pay the bills need to support the project
Appropriate timing of project - does the organization have the time to install the new system.
Possibility of improving the reaching of goals - it should not deter from reaching the goals, it should help reach them.
Do you and/or the organization have the skills to do the project?
Is it worthy compared to other projects?
Determining Feasibility
Not a full blown study but a quick look to see if organization should go on.
Defining Objectives
Projects should be taken on if they can cause improvements. Some standards that you can look at are some things that will speed up or streamlining a process, combining processes, reducing errors, reducing redundant storage or output and improving integration of systems. An analyst should take time to make a FIG (Feasibility Impact Grid) to see how the changes will affect not only the Process Objectives but the corporate objectives as well. The analyst should look to see that a project is necessary and not just another way to spend money on bells and whistles for the purpose of having the bells and whistles.
Determining Resources
In the process of determining if company has the resources they should look at three areas of feasibility: technical, economic and operational.
In technical feasibility we look to see if the technology is currently available is available to purchase.. Remember that patching an old system may wind up costing more than doing a new system.
In looking at economic feasibility, the cost of doing a full study is analyzed as well as the cost to the company to develop what is needed.
Do users want a new system or are they tied to the old system? This is the operational feasibility study.
Judging Feasibility
The preliminary study should cover all three of these aspects. Projects that pass the test should go on to the next stage and is not a commitment from management that they will be done.
Activity Planning and Control
Estimating Time Required
A systems analyst should break down the project into three parts: analysis, design and implementation. Each of these gets broken down further. Analysis - data gathering, data flow and decision analysis and proposal presentation. Design - data entry design, input and output design, and data organization. Implementation - implementation and evaluation. These steps can be broken down into further jobs as well. A hard part of the work can be planning how much time each one of these tasks is going to take.
Using Gantt Charts for Project Scheduling
A Gantt chart is a two-dimensional chart that shows activities on a horizontal axis. The horizontal axis represents the time frame of the project. Tasks are listed in boxes to represent the time frame that they will take and when they will take place. It has as an advantage, simplicity.
Using PERT Diagrams
Program (another word for a project) Evaluation and Review Techniques (PERT) Diagrams are laid out as circles that have interconnecting lines. These lines show what tasks must be done before the next connecting circle can be done. In using Gantt charts it is unclear sometimes if a task needs to wait for another task before it can be done or if it just happens to end when another task begins. The circles are usually numbered in two digits to show the left to right progression of a task. By adding up the largest amounts of days in the progressions it is possible to determine how long it will take to do a job. This can be referred to as the critical path.
Computer-Based Project Scheduling
Computer software has made these charts easier to do. One major software that does this is Microsoft Project.
Timeboxing
This involves setting a due date for the project and what ever is not implemented will be left off for the time being. Another method used is PIM software and people's to do lists.
Managing Analysis and Design Activities
Communication Strategies for Managing Teams
Teams tend to have two leaders, one to accomplish the task at hand and another that shows concern for the socio-emotional needs of the members. Feedback must be a constant thing if the members of a group are to avoid friction. Groups form their own way of doing things, called norms. Most norms do not pass from one group to another or may even change over time. Some norms, though they have existed for a while may be counter-productive.
Setting Project Productivity Goals
Any goals that affect the team need to be agreed upon by the team.
Motivating Project Team Members
Goal setting is an excellent way to motivate people.
Managing Projects Using COTS Software
The use of commercial off-the-shelf (COTS) software can allow for quick implementation if you can find ones that fit your needs easily or can be modified by the use of templates etc. It is wise to test these out though, because installing one COTS may break another.
Managing Ecommerce Projects
Ecommerce projects can cause problems because the information is scattered over many different departments and this can cause territorial battles over who owns the information. Ecommerce teams tend to need people with more and varied skills as well. Because of linking to outside world via the Internet, security becomes a major importance.
Avoiding Project Failures
Avoid the unrealistic dates problem when ever possible. Do not buy into the myth that more people will get the job done quicker. And if needed get outside help. These all will prevent projects from failing. If a group decides to take on a project it represents them if it is completed or not.
Extreme Programming Projects
XP is a system development approach taking good development practices to an extreme. Four variables that a developer can control are time, cost, quality and scope. They must balance out with the coding, testing, designing and listening activities of project development. By controlling the amount of each of these, a project is kept in balance. If we know what the time, cost and quality are, we can adjust for the scope as needed.
Extreme Programming Resource Trade-Offs
Time - you need enough time to complete the project. Running short on time may not be a bad thing if you can implement enough of the project to keep customer happy. Try not to extend deadline, the XP approach focuses on finish on time.
Cost - Increasing cost does not always add to the project, especially hiring more people. More people lead to more confusion and overtime leads to tired workers. It is possible to purchase better tools to do the job, but all projects should stay under the budget they have set up.
Quality - Internal quality (bug checking and the like) cannot be sacrificed but it is possible to let external quality to slide. In order to meet deadlines, some bugs may have to be accepted by the customer or the user interface may not be just right.
Scope - What the customer wants may have to be delayed for another version of the software in order to meet deadlines.
Extreme Programming Core Practices and Roles
Four XP core practices
1. Short release - get it out quick and on time, even if features missing.
2. 40 hour work week - keep your people rested and they work better
3. Onsite customer - customer should be heavily involved in the development team
4. Pair programming - team programmers together can work quite well in bouncing ideas back and forth and testing things.

Roles for People
Programmer
Customer - be clear what you want
Tester (sometimes done by programmer but better done separately)
Tracker - tracks progress of how well things are being done and kept on schedule
Coach - keep people motivated
Consultant - help them learn to solve their own problems.
Big Boss confidence in project and keep things flowing

The Planning Game
The metaphor of a game helps how one looks at a project. In any game you want to maximize your potential to help team or self win.

How project risks are handled by XP
Use a fishbone diagram to view the possible problems that could develop in a project and then do not let them happen.
Developmental Process for an XP Project
1. Explore - decide to take the project or not.
2. Planning - Once taken set up time frames.
3. Iterations - testing, feedback and change in repletion until done. Celebrate your progress points
4. Productionizing final features and release
5. Maintenance - keep running smoothly, add some features.

Fundamentals of Supervision

Book: Supervision: Key Link to Productivity 8e, Rue, Leslie and Byaas, Lloyd
Chapter 3 - Developing Communications Skills

1. Communication as a Supervisory Skill
   1. Supervisors must have many communications skills
      1. Give clear directions to people who work for them
      2. Must be able to motivate people
      3. Must be able to understand the ideas of others
      4. Must be able to persuade others
2. Interpersonal Communications
   1. Interactive process between individuals that involves sending and receiving verbal and nonverbal messages.
   1. Conflicting or Inappropriate Assumptions
      1. As a supervisor always check to make sure that the message that you sent out is the same that the other one received.
   2. Semantics
      1. Study of meanings of words and symbols
      2. Some words have multiple meanings to them.
      3. Technical languages develop in industries that cause confusion to others.
      4. Words need to be carefully chosen in supervisor role
   3. Perception
      1. The mental and sensory processes an individual uses in processing information received
      2. No two people will perceive something the same way.
      3. Selective perception is state where receiver will block out some information.
   4. Emotions Either Preceding or during Communications
      1. Emotions that a sender or a receiver is going through may affect how the communications take place.
      2. The emotions can be before the meeting or during
      3. Managers should learn to try to manage the emotional environment.
3. Learning to Communicate
   1. Understand the Audience
      1. What does it know
      2. What does it want to know
      3. What is capacity for absorbing the information
      4. What is gained by listening?
      5. Is audience friendly or hostile?
      /ol>
      6. Developing Good Listening Skills
         1. An important skill for a supervisor
         2. Active Listening
            1. Absorb what a person is saying and respond to the concerns they have.
            2. Most people forget what they have heard within 10 minutes. It is almost totally gone within 48 hours.
         3. How to do active listening
            1. Listen to the speaker's purpose
            2. Identify the speaker's main ideas
            3. Note the speaker's tone as well as body language
            4. Respond to the speaker with appropriate comments, questions, and body language.
      7. Feedback
         1. A way of determining that the speaker got the right message
         2. Try to get them to repeat back what you said to them to verify it.
      8. d. Understanding the Importance of Nonverbal Communication
         1. Paralanguage - nonverbal communications involving pitch, temp, loudness and hesitations used in communications
         2. Gestures used - be careful with these as they mean different things in different countries
         3. Proximity to speaker can also be important
   2. Written Communications
      1. Principles of Good Writing
         1. Write as clearly as possible
         2. Be sure content and tone are appropriate for audience
         3. Proofread the document (do not just rely on spell check)
   3. Oral Communications
      1. The Importance of Oral Communications
      2. Developing Oral Communication Skills
         1. Make emotional contact with listener
            1. use names when possible
            2. keep eye contact going
         2. Avoid speaking in monotone
         3. Be enthusiastic and project positive outlook
         4. Avoid interrupting people
         5. Always be courteous
         6. Avoid empty sound words ('um', 'uh', 'like', 'you know')
   4. Choosing the Best Method of Communication
      1. Not all methods are equal in all situations
      2. Use the best for that situation
   5. Communicating within the Organization
      1. The Grapevine
         1. Informal channel in a company for communications purposes
         2. Handles mostly distorted messages and rumors
         3. Management needs to be aware of it, and listen to what is going on. They also need to dispel rumors that would damage the company that are heard there.
      2. E-Mail
         1. Saves time, wasted effort and provides written record of communications.
   6. Communications in International Business
      1. English is primary language in the world but there are 3,000.
      2. Nonverbal communications complicate things as different gestures mean different things in other cultures
      3. Basic rules
         1. Learn the culture of who you are speaking to
         2. Write and speak clearly, avoiding jargon.

Systems Analysis and Design

Book: Systems Analysis and Design 6e Kendell & Kendall
Chapter 2 Understanding Orgaizational Style and its Impact on Information Systems

1. 1. Organizations as Systems
   Organizations can be thought of as separate units that work to benefit the whole of the organization. These separate systems work together to make a complex system.
   
   
   
   1. Interrelatedness and Interdependence of Systems
      All systems and subsystems affect all other systems and subsystems in the organization.
      Systems make output out of input. If nothing is being changed it may not be a system you are looking at.
      Systems (and organizations) have boundaries. They can be permeable or not but they are there.
      Feedback is a system control. Ideal system will do use this feedback without that human decisions are not needed. Feedback can come from inside or outside the system/organization. A similar concept is that of openness or closedness.
   
   
   2. Vitrual Organizations and Virtual Teams
      Many organizations have developed virtual components. This allows for working at things from many locations as if they were a team. One must be careful in this environment to keep a perspective that you are part of a team even when there is no socialization taking place.
      
   
   
   3. Taking a System Perspective
      Problems result when a subsystem in the organization sees itself as the main reason the company is where it is. It is the systems analyst job to see the subsystems as equally important and get them to work together.
      
   
   
   4. Enterprise Resource Planning: Viewing the Organization as a System
      ERP is software that helps with the sharing of information across an organization. They can be hard to fit into existing systems and building or rebuilding from scratch can wind up being rushed and not done right.
   
   


2. Depicting Systems Graphically
   
   
   1. Systems and the Context-Level Data Flow Diagram
      DFD use three shapes to show the data flow un the system. 1) Rectangle with rounded edges represents processes. 2) Square with 2 shadow edges represents entities. 3) An arrow represents the flow.
      
   
   
   2. Systems and the are Entity-Relationship Model
      Another way to look at things is an ERD. This uses rectangles with lines attached to show the relationships. The end of the lines can have a pair of parallel lines (=) on the end meaning one to one relationship, or a crows foot representing a many relationship. A zero on a line means that there can be 0 entities in a relationship with the other end. To these we add Associative entries (things that create an association with the entries) by drawing a diamond in the rectangle. We can also add attributive entries, round edges in rectangle, which represent descriptions of attributes. An ERD is used to show the relationships between different elements of the process and what attributes they can contain.
   
   


3. Levels of Management
   There are three levels of management. They are operational control (lower level), managerial planning (middle level) and Strategic management (top level). Operational level uses pre determined rules for decisions. Middle mangers do short term planning and make decisions on how company is controlled. High level managers make decisions to steer the future of the company.
   
   
   1. Implications for Information Systems Development
      Since different levels of management need different information to do their job, the systems analyst will need to tailor the information to the person using it. Some layers may overlap in the company so be prepared to give the users what they need.
   
   


4. Organizational Culture
   This is a new area of study. The culture can consist of many things including verbal, non-verbal, ceremonies and other things. An analyst needs to understand the culture in the organization to understand the true flow of things at times.
   

Systems Analysis and Design

Book: Systems Analysis and Design 6e Kendell & Kendall
Chapter 1 Assuming the Role of the System Analyst

1. Types of Systems
   1. Transaction Processing Systems
      1. TPS are computerized information systems developed to process large amounts of data for routine transactions
      2. They span boundaries inside and outside the organization
   2. Office Automation Systems and Knowledge Work Systems
      1. OAS support data workers who analyze and ransform data then share it
         1. Covers word processing, spreadsheets, e-mail and the like.
      2. KWS aids professional workers in sharing new knowledge they create.
   3. Management Information Systems
      1. MIS includes the element of TPS talked about before
      2. Inputs information from many sources (people and computers) and outputs information to help management make decisions
      3. Stores information in databases
   4. Decision Support Systems
      1. DSS similar to MIS
      2. Emphasizes the support of decision making
      3. Decision is still up to manager using it
   5. Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence
      1. AI is all encompassing field for expert systems
      2. AI develops machines that mimic intelligent behavior
      3. Expert Systems use AI to solve problems of users by selecting the best solution unlike DSS suggesting solution
   6. Group Decision Support Systems and Computer Collaborative Work Systems
      1. GDSS bring groups together to help solve problems by using various software tools
      2. Also called CCWS or groupware
   7. Executive Support Systems
      1. ESS helps executives interact with environments
2. Integrated Technologies for Systems
   1. Ecommerce Applications and Web Systems
   2. Enterprise Resource Planning Systems
   3. Systems for Wireless and Handheld Devices
      1. Wireless systems need to made secure
      2. Software needs to be developed to make PDAs and the like useable by people in company
   4. Open Source Software
3. Need for System Analysis and Design
   1. You can not do any thing without proper planning first
   2. System Analysis brings all the parties together to build a system that will work
4. Roles of System Analyst
   1. System Analyst as Consultant
      1. Hired as a temporary person
         1. Fresh eyes for problem - good
         2. Does not know organizational culture - bad
      2. Rely on users and management to lead to where problems could be
   2. System Analyst as Supporting Expert
      1. Regular employee at company
      2. Usually not full blown Systems Analyst project, just supporting people by making small changes and tweaking things
   3. System Analyst as an Agent of Change
      1. You are an agent of change if participate in the System Development Life Cycle
      2. If change, defined as needed improvements, is required you help plan for that change
   4. Qualities of the System Analyst
      1. Problem solver
      2. Know various aspects of computers
      3. Self-disciplined and self-motivated
5. The System Development Life Cycle
   1. Identifying Problems, Opportunities, and Objectives
      1. Look at what is occurring then pinpoint the problems
      2. Identify what the objectives are to be
      3. Output from this phase will be feasibility study so group can decide to continue or not
   2. Determining Information Requirements
      1. Determine what people need
         1. Interview people doing job
         2. Observe people doing job
      2. Find out current method and why it is used
      3. Change current method if it needs changing
   3. Analyzing System Needs
      1. Use tools to diagram what is happening
      2. Create structured decisions to help respond to actions
         1. structured English
         2. decision tables
         3. decision trees
      3. When done, cost should be established for each possible resolution and analyst makes recommendation
   4. Designing the Recommended System
      1. Design user interface
      2. Design data storage needs
      3. Design controls and backup procedures to protect data
   5. Developing and Documenting Software
      1. Develop material so programmer can understand what is needed (ex. Pseudo code)
      2. Develop documentation to help user (manuals, FAQs, etc.)
   6. Testing and Maintaining the System
      1. Test system before turned over to users (not after)
      2. Maintenance is on going item. Tweak system to fix problems as they rise
   7. Implementing and Evaluating the System
      1. Last stage
      2. Train the users to use new system (or revisions of old)
      3. Evaluate if system does job
      4. These steps are not cyclical, but one steps problems may require you to backtrack to previous ones
   8. The Impact of Maintenance
      1. Estimates of 48 to 60 % of time in job involves maintenance
      2. At some point maintaining system cost more than developing new system
6. Using CASE Tools
   1. Reasons for Using CASE Tools
      1. Increased analyst productivity
         1. tools make it easy for modifications to be done to system
         2. CASE tools can create program code for company
      2. Improve Analyst-User communications
      3. Integrate life cycle activities - flow from one step to next easily
      4. Accuracy in assessing maintenance changes
7. Upper and Lower CASE
   1. Upper CASE Tools
      1. Create and modify the system design
      2. Support for modeling an organizations layout
      3. Prototyping of screens and reports
   2. Lower CASE Tools
      1. Generate source code
         1. Quicker than programmers can write it
         2. lower cost on generating code and maintenance
         3. Code produced in multiple languages supports easy migration
         4. Easy modification of already existing CASE designs speeds development.
         5. Generated code free of errors in coding, only design errors can be there.
8. Software Reverse Engineering and Reengineering
   1. Extends life of legacy software
   2. Code is revised back to source code and then put into CASE tools to revise it
9. Object-Oriented System Analysis and Design
   1. Approach to design software that must be changed rapidly to meet needs
   2. OOL uses Universal Modeling Language (UML) to break system to case model
   3. Objects represent computer things, people, orders, etc.
10. Extreme Programming and Other Alternative Methodologies
    1. Extreme Programming (XP)

Fundamentals of Supervision

Book: Supervision: Key Link to Productivity 8e, Rue, Leslie and Byaas, Lloyd
Chapter 2 Making Sound and Creative Decisions

1. Decision Making versus Problem Solving
   
   1. Decision Making - choosing from various alternatives
   2. Problem Solving - Process of deciding an appropriate response to resolve a problem
   3. While they are similar problem solving involves decisions but not all decisions are caused by problems
   4. Program versus Nonprogrammed Decisions
      1. Programmed - automatic response to a problem that arises, routine things
      2. Nonprogrammed Decisions - responses to one or limited time events, non-routine things
2. Recognition and Timeliness of the Decision
   1. Recognition that there is a decision that needs to be made is the first step to resolving the decision.
   2. Do not fall into one of the three traps
      1. Always making quick decisions
      2. Always taking too much time to make a decision
      3. Avoiding making a decision at all
3. Steps in the Decision-Making Process
1. Be alert to Indications and Symptoms of Problems - do not ignore signs that a problem is coming
2. Tentatively Define the Problem - What you think may be the problem may not be. Does a worker make bad parts because he is careless or because his equipment is broken?
3. Collect Facts and Redefine the Problem If Necessary - collect the information necessary to define the problem or maybe redefine it
4. Identify Possible Alternatives - Do not just come up with one or two solutions. Minimum should be four, best to have more.
5. Gather and Organize Facts Concerning Identified Alternatives - Research to find the best solution for your problem
6. Evaluate Possible Alternatives - With the facts gathered decide what would be the benefits and problems with each decisions
7. Choose and Implement the Best Alternative - Keep your personal biases from influencing the decision. Do not choose a plan just to make a choice if alternatives are bad.
8. The Follow-Up - Ask the necessary question, Did it work? What went wrong and why?
4. Group Decision Making
   1. Advantages
      1. More alternatives to choose from
      2. People accept choices that they have participated in
      3. The sum total of knowledge of group is greater than any one person
   2. Disadvantages
      1. Takes more time
      2. Groupthink, pressure for the group to think alike, may occur
      3. One person can dominate the group if not careful
      4. Competition for pet ideas can become intense
      5. Groups tend to go with the first proposal that meets standards needed
   3. Supervisor needs to set down the rules for the decision, does he have the right to reject the idea or ideas presented. What limits are on the group
5. practical Traps to Avoid When Making Decisions
   1. Making all decisions BIG decisions
   2. Creating Crisis Situations
   3. Failing to consult with others
   4. Never admitting a mistake
   5. Constantly regretting decisions made
   6. Failing to utilize precedents and policies
   7. Promising what cannot be delivered
   8. Delaying decisions too long
6. Making Creative Decisions
   1. The Creative Person - creativity is not something that you have or do not, all people have it to some degree or another
   2. Improving Personal Creativity
      1. Most people let creativity dry up as they get older
      2. To improve creativity:
         1. Think outside the box
         2. Do not be limited by practicality
         3. Let your subconscious mind work on the problem
   
   
   3. Establishing and maintaining a creative climate
      1. Demonstrate you value creativity
      2. Brainstorming - gather people together to get ideas no matter how impractical it may seem
      3. Brainwriting - same process but ideas are written on paper and then expounded on by others anonymously
      4. Synectics - make the familiar strange and make the strange familiar
   4. Barriers to Organizational Creativity
      1. Fear of failure
      2. Premature criticism (of ideas)
      3. The supervisor's shadow - do not create environment where workers give you what you want to hear
      4. Distractions and interruptions
      5. Protection of status quo
      6. Hierarchical idea filters - the more levels it must go up to get accomplished, the more it will get distorted or lost
      7. Appropriated ideas - do not take credit for ideas that come from subordinates
      8. Lack of support - ideas enhanced when supported by supervisors and co-workers
      9. Excessive togetherness

Fundemetals of Supervision

Book: Supervision: Key Link to Productivity 8e, Rue, Leslie and Byaas, Lloyd
Chapter 1 The Supervisor's Job

1. What is supervision?
   
   1. the first level of management in organization
   2. Concerned with encouraging the members if work unit to contribute positively.
   3. Supervisor must have varied skills
2. Who are supervisors?
   1. First established in the Bible (Moses)
   2. Have various levels. Top. Middle. Supervisor
   3. Fair Labor Standards Act defines who a manager is.
3. Sources of Supervisory Talent
   1. From within organization
   2. Officers of Labor Unions
   3. College graduates
4. The Functions of Supervision
   1. Functions
      1. Planning - determine where you are at, determine the objective, and determine best way to reach goals.
      2. Organizing - distributing the work among the employees.
      3. Staffing - obtaining and developing good people.
      4. Leading - directing people to accomplish of work objectives.
      5. Controlling - see if objectives met and correcting
      6. Various levels of management will use these skills in different percentages, but all are necessary for good supervisory skills.
   2. Skills - Another way to look at skills breaks into 4 groups
      1. Technical - knowledge of how things are done
      2. Human Relations Skills - how to work with people
      3. Administrative Skills - how the organization works
      4. Decision making skills - analyze and make decisions
      5. Theses skills like above are in different mix based on level of management.
   3. Key Reasons for Supervisory success
      1. ability and willingness to delegate
      2. proper use of Authority
      3. setting a good example
      4. Recognize Change in roll.
      5. Desire for job
5. The Changing Nature of the Supervisor's Environment
   1. Changes in Information Availability
      1. Access to Internet
      2. Cell phones, teleconferencing and the like.
      3. These rapid changes require more skilled employees
   2. Changes in Outlook towards the Work Environment
      1. Workforce demographics
         1. Workforce has more woman
         2. Workforce has more Hispanics (taking over as primary minority)
         3. Workforce is getting older
      2. Opportunities and Challenges of Diversity
         1. Everyone is not the same and these differences presents challenges (and contributions)
         2. Glass ceiling
            1. Woman and other minorities cannot rise above a certain point in great numbers
            Organizations and government are looking on how to change this.
      3. Guidelines for Managing Diversity
         1. Focus on observable behavior
         2. Avoid stereotyping
         3. Evaluate output, not input
         4. Don't make assumptions about nonstandard behavior
         5. Provide feedback based on observations
         6. Don't tolerate nonbehavioral assumptions from anyone
         7. Test your own behaviors
6. Supervision: Key Link to Productivity

Fundemetals of Supervision

Book: Supervision: Key Link to Productivity 8e, Rue, Leslie and Byaas, Lloyd
Chapter 1 The Supervisor's Job

1. What is supervision?
   
   1. the first level of management in organization
   2. Concerned with encouraging the members if work unit to contribute positively.
   3. Supervisor must have varied skills
2. Who are supervisors?
   1. First established in the Bible (Moses)
   2. Have various levels. Top. Middle. Supervisor
   3. Fair Labor Standards Act defines who a manager is.
3. Sources of Supervisory Talent
   1. From within organization
   2. Officers of Labor Unions
   3. College graduates
4. The Functions of Supervision
   1. Functions
      1. Planning - determine where you are at, determine the objective, and determine best way to reach goals.
      2. Organizing - distributing the work among the employees.
      3. Staffing - obtaining and developing good people.
      4. Leading - directing people to accomplish of work objectives.
      5. Controlling - see if objectives met and correcting
      6. Various levels of management will use these skills in different percentages, but all are necessary for good supervisory skills.
   2. Skills - Another way to look at skills breaks into 4 groups
      1. Technical - knowledge of how things are done
      2. Human Relations Skills - how to work with people
      3. Administrative Skills - how the organization works
      4. Decision making skills - analyze and make decisions
      5. Theses skills like above are in different mix based on level of management.
   3. Key Reasons for Supervisory success
      1. ability and willingness to delegate
      2. proper use of Authority
      3. setting a good example
      4. Recognize Change in roll.
      5. Desire for job
5. The Changing Nature of the Supervisor's Environment
   1. Changes in Information Availability
      1. Access to Internet
      2. Cell phones, teleconferencing and the like.
      3. These rapid changes require more skilled employees
   2. Changes in Outlook towards the Work Environment
      1. Workforce demographics
         1. Workforce has more woman
         2. Workforce has more Hispanics (taking over as primary minority)
         3. Workforce is getting older
      2. Opportunities and Challenges of Diversity
         1. Everyone is not the same and these differences presents challenges (and contributions)
         2. Glass ceiling
            1. Woman and other minorities cannot rise above a certain point in great numbers
            Organizations and government are looking on how to change this.
      3. Guidelines for Managing Diversity
         1. Focus on observable behavior
         2. Avoid stereotyping
         3. Evaluate output, not input
         4. Don't make assumptions about nonstandard behavior
         5. Provide feedback based on observations
         6. Don't tolerate nonbehavioral assumptions from anyone
         7. Test your own behaviors
6. Supervision: Key Link to Productivity

Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior 10 e Hellriegel and Slocum

Chapter 6 - Motivating Individuals for High Performance

Unit6

1. Model of Goal Setting and Performance
   Goals are future outcomes (results) that individuals and groups desire and strive to achieve. Goal Setting is the process of specifying what the goals will be.
   1. Importance of Goal Setting
      Goals guide and direct behavior. Goals provide challenges and indicators against which team or person can judge performance. Goals justify performance of various tasks. Goals define the basis for Organization's design. Goals serve an organizing function. Goals reflect where employees and mangers alike consider important.
      Locke and Latham developed a model of individual goal settings and performance that we will now look at.
   2. challenge
      Two key attributes for goals:
      • Goal difficulty
        Goal needs to be challenging but not impossible
      • Goal Clarity
        It must be clear and specific or it is on no use to the person trying to seek them.
      
      One method used is Management by Objective which uses goals to define what the person needs to reach.
      Self-efficacy is important also. It is the belief that a person can perform at a certain level in a situation.
   3. Moderators
      Four factors that moderate the ability to meet the goals:
      
      • Ability
        The person must have the ability to do the task
      • Goal Commitment
        The individual's determination to reach a goal. Public stated goals are stronger than private ones, Ones set by person or by person with management input are more likely met than one imposed my management. Ones that have a useable reward also have greater chance of being met.
      • Feedback
        Person needs feedback on how they are doing on meeting goals.
      • Task Complexity
   4. Mediators
      
      • Direction of attention
        Steers person away from irrelevant activities
      • effort
        Greater the difficulty the more person will have to exert effort if willing to achieve.
      • persistence
        Desire to work on a task over the long term.
      • Task strategy
        How a person decides to do a task.
   5. Performance
      performance can be met when the previous three have been done. Sometimes due to problems on job, a code of ethics needs to be developed.
   6. Rewards
      Once a performance level has been reached rewards should be used. They can be external (vacations, bonuses), or internal (achievement feeling, pride). Different cultures look on the rewards differently so be careful with cross cultural management.
   7. Satisfaction
      This is not the organizations satisfaction, but the employee's. Due to circumstances, it may be necessary to compromise, especially with goals set to high.
   8. The Effect of Goal Setting on Motivation and Performance
      
      1. Encourages people to develop action plans to reach goals
      2. Focuses people's attention on the goal relevant actions
      3. Causing people to exert the effort necessary to achieve goals.
      4. spurirng people to persist in face of obstacles
   9. Limitations to Goal Setting
      Goal setting will not work if person lacks skills to meet goals. Complicated tasks that require large amounts of learning may take longer. Rewarding wrong behavior can lead to problems (even illegal activity).
   10. Organizational Use
       Satisfaction and commitment to organization result when challenges are met.


2. Reward Systems For High Performance
   Rewards, to be useful, should be:
   • Available 0 too small a reward is as good as no reward (think pay increase)
   • Timely - should be close to behavior it is trying to reinforce.
   • Performance Contingency - closely linked to performance
   • Durable - some rewards last longer than others, think autonomy v. pay increase
   • Equity - pay policies are equitable to all.
   • visibility - rewards must be visible to all.
   1. Gain-Sharing Programs
      Rewards people who reach specific goals but formula can be too complex
   2. Profit-Sharing Programs
      Rewards organizational performance but people might not see their impact on organization
   3. Skill-Based Pay
      Rewards people who acquire skills but cost can increase or employee can top out.
   4. Flexible Benefit Plans
      Benefits tailored to individual but higher cost to administer program.
   5. Organizational Use
      Management needs to look at trade offs discussed above.

1. Introduction to SQL
   SQL meets ideal database language requirements because it is a data definition language and has a data manipulation language, as well as it is fairly easy to learn. ANSI/ISO has described a standard SQL. Even so, there are many dialects of the SQL language.
2. Data Definition Commands
   
   
   1. The DataBase Model
      Model we will follow is simple but since this is notes not needed to be reproduced now.
   2. The Tables and Their Components
      again, we have details about the sample data not necessary to take notes on.
   3. Creating the Database and Table Structures
      To create a data base we use the following structure: CREATE SCHEMA AUTHORIZATION <creator>;
      example Jones is creator CREATE SCHEMA AUTHORIZATION JONES;
   4. Creating Table Structures
      With the creation of the database we need to create tables. We will need to determine the components of the tables and what type of data they are (date, number, string). To do this we would use the CREATE TABLE command, the format would look like this (note: we would have as many attributes as needed).
      CREATE TABLE <table name>(
      <attribute1 name and attribute1 characteristics,
      attribute2 name and attribute2 characteristics,
      attribute3 name and attribute3 characteristics,
      primary key designation,
      foreign key designation and foreign key requirements>);
      Though we use one line per a attribute, it is not necessary as long as commas are there. It makes it easier to read and debug if done this way. If a table is using a foreign key, the table that it refers to should be created first. Sample table creation

      
      CREATE  TABLE VENDOR(
      V_CODE            INTEGER             NOT NULL     UNIQUE,
      V_NAME           VARCHAR(35)    NOT NULL,
      V_CONTACT    VARCHAR(15)    NOT NULL,
      V_AREACODE CHAR(3)              NOT NULL,
      V_PHONE         CHAR(8)              NOT NULL,
      V_STATE         CHAR(2)              NOT NULL,
      V_ORDER        CHAR(1)              NOT NULL,
      PRIMARY KEY (V_CODE);
      

      
      Foregin keys would be created in another table and refered back to this one. Example: FOREIGN KEY (V_Code) REFERENCES VENDOR if this had been vendor table. NOT NULL means the item has to have a value to it, UNIQUE means it has to be a unique value in the table. Anything in () defines the values that are made. For example V_CODE is one character. It is not a good idea to give the column names (the attributes) anything that has a mathematical symbol in it. They can cause confusion.
   5. Using Domains
      Domains are permissable sets of values that can be in a row/column combination. We use the CREATE DOMAIN command to do this.
      CREATE DOMAIN <domain_name> AS DATA_TYPE
      [DEFAULT <default_value>]
      [CHECK (<condition>)]
      
      Example marital status:
      CREATE DOMAIN MARITAL_STATUS AS VARCHAR(8)
      CHECK (VALUE IN('Single','Divorced','Widowed'));
      
      This now creates a variable type that you could use.
      
      To remove this Domain later we: DROP DOMAIN <domain_name> [RESTRICT | CASCADE]
      CASCADE when used will change the type in the table that was used in creating the domain. RESTRICT will keep you from deleteing the DOMAIN untill no atributes are based on it. (NOTE: some RDBMSs do not support domains)
   6. SQL Integrity Constraints
      To maintain integrity, we use two commands ON DELETE RESTRICT which will not let us delete a row if it will effect another table (Vendor list for example - deleting it would make a product list have no vendor for an item). ON UPDATE CASCADE however forces changes to any other table that relies on it if changes are made to it.
3. Data Manipulation Commands
   Common SQL Commands:
   

   Command	Description
   INSERT	Lets you insert into a table, one row at a time. Used to make the initial data entries into a new tabel structure that already contains data.
   SELECT	List the table contents. Actually SELECT is a query command rather than a data management command. Nevertheless SELECT is introduced in this section because it lets you check the results of your data management efforts
   COMMIT	Lets you save your work to the disk
   UPDATE	Enables you to make changes in the data.
   DELETE	Enables you to delete one or more rows.
   ROLLBACK	Restoes the database table contents to their original conditions (Since last COMMIT)

   1. Data Entry
      INSERT INTO <table name> VALUES(attribute1 value, attribute 2 value, ... etc.);
      Example
      INSERT INTO VENDOR
      VALUES (21225, 'Bryson, Inc.','Smithson',615',223-3234','TN','Y');
      String and date values are between apostraphes (') except dates in Access (uses pound sign #) If necessary and no value has been provided put NULL in the place of the data that would go in (but only if NOT NULL is not in the table creation).
   2. Saving the Table Contents
      COMMIT <table name>; will save the changes to the table.
   3. Listing the Table Contents
      Use the SELECT command with the porper attributes to get the information that you need. To get all the results of a PRODUCT table you would use
      SELECT * FROM PRODUCT;
      You could also use individual column names as well to only display that information.
   4. Making a Correction
      To update a particular piece of information
      UPDATE PRODUCT SET (attribute = value [,attribut2=value2,attribute3 = value3]) WHERE (other attribute = value);
   5. Restoring the Table Contents
      ROLLBACK takes table changes back to what they were after last save.
   6. Deleting Table Rows
      DELETE FROM <table name> WHERE <attribute = value>;


4. Queries
   

   To Be Continued

   
   
   
   
   1. Partial Listing of Table Contents
   
   
   2. Logical Operators: And, Or, and Not
   
   
   3. Special Operators
   
   
   
   


5. Advanced Data Management Commands
   
   
   
   1. Changing a Column's Data Type
   
   
   2. Changing Attribute Characteristics
   
   
   3. Dropping a Column
   
   
   4. Entering Data into the New Column
   
   
   5. Arithmetic Operators and the Rule of Precedence
   
   
   6. Copying Parts of a Table
   
   
   7. Deleting a Table from the Database
   
   
   8. Primary and Foreign Key Designations
   
   
   
   


6. More Complex Queries and SQL Functions
   
   
   
   1. Ordering a Listing
   
   
   2. Listing Unique Values
   
   
   3. Aggregate Functions in SQL
   
   
   4. Grouping Data
   
   
   5. Virtual Tables: Creating a View
   
   
   6. SQL Indexes
   
   
   7. Joining Database Tables
   
   
   
   


7. Updated Views


8. Procedural SQL
   
   
   
   1. Triggers
   
   
   2. Stored Procedures
   
   
   3. PL/SQL Stored Functions
   
   
   
   


9. Converting an E-R Model into a Database Structure


10. General Rules Governing Relationships Among Tables

Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior 10e Hellriegel/Slocum

Chapter 5 Achiving Motavation in the Workplace

Unit 5

1. The Basic Motivational Process
   There are four basic needs that need to be addressed in what motivates people. They are 1) meeting basic human needs, 2) Designing jobs that motivate people, 3) enhancing the belief that rewards can be achieved, and 4) treating people equitably. Unless these are met there can be no motivation. Motivation is the forces acting on or within a person that causes the person to behave in a specific goal-directed manner. motivation is not to be confused with performance. A highly motivated person can perform poorly if he or she does not have adequate skills.
   1. Core Phases of the Process
      Performance can be be put simply as a function of a persons ability times their motivation. You cannot do a task unless you have the ability, the talent to perform a goal-related task. The person must want to achieve this as well. To start this process we identify the persons needs deficiencies that a person is experiencing at a time. They break down to psychological (recognition), physiological (air, food) or social (friendship). Needs create tension that a person seeks to eliminate. Motivation is goal directed. A Goal is a specific result that an individual wants to achieve. These can be a driving force behind a person.
   2. Motivational challenges
      In concept, motivation is straight forward and simple. In reality it is not. First motivations can only be inferred, not seen. Second, the needs of a person are dynamic and change over time. Lastly there are differences in what motivates people. A manager needs to know what motivates his people and then do something about it.
2. Motivating Employees Through Meeting Human Needs
   1. Needs Hierarchy Model
      Abraham Maslow suggested a needs Hierarchy with four assumptions.
      • When a need has been satisfied, its role in motivation goes down., but another will need to come up.
      • Needs network is complex with many needs affecting behavior. Emergency needs take precedence though.
      • Lower level needs must be met before higher level needs can be met.
      • There are more ways to satisfy higher level needs then their are higher level ones.
      There are five types of needs:
      1. Physiological: need for food, water, air, etc. These are the lowest level of needs. People will take any job that meets these needs. Managers that motivate this way assume people work only for money.
      2. Security Needs: safety, stability, etc. If these needs are not met, like physiological needs, people will be preoccupied with meeting them.
      3. Affiliation Needs: friendship, love, etc. When first two are met, people will look for a sense of belonging. Managers who believe that people are needing this will act in a supportive mode.
      4. Esteem needs: self-worth and recognition from others. These people want others to accept them for what they are and to look at them as competent and able. (Read Mary Kay Cosmetic sales force)
      5. Self-Actualization needs: These people strive to increase their problem solving abilities.
      Using Maslow's Needs Hierarchy
      The three lowest are called deficiency needs. If not met a person cannot grow into a healthy person. The last two are growth needs. Satisfaction here helps a person grow. These needs are really based on US cultural values. Top managers are able to satisfy their own growth needs than are lower level managers.
   2. achievement Motivation Model
      David McClelland proposed a learned needs model of motivation that he believes is rooted in culture. Everyone had three important needs: achievements, affiliation and power. Those who have strong power motive take action that affect the behavior of others. Those with strong affiliation motive tend to establish relationships with others. those with strong achievement motive compete against standards of excellence or against behaviors and achievements. These are influenced by childhood, personal and occupational experiences and the types of organizations they work for. These motives are stored in the preconscious mind, just below full awareness and can be determined by how a person interprets an unstructured picture called a Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT).
      Characteristics of High achievers Self motivators tend to have three characteristics. They like to set their own goals. They prefer moderate goals, ones that can be achieved but not with out a small challenge. They lastly prefer tasks that provide immediate feedback.
      Financial Incentives - The effect of money had a mixed effect on high achievers. Though they will not stay at a place that does not pay them well, routine or boring tasks will drive them away as well. They need something to motivate them as well as the money.
3. Motivating Employees Through Job Design
   Frederick Herzberg developed another model, the motivator-hygiene model.
   1. Motivational Factors
      Motivator factors include the work itself, recognition, advancement, and responsibility. They are intrinsic factors which are directly related to the job and internal to individual.
   2. Hygiene Factors
      Hygiene factors are company policies and administrations, salary, benefits, etc. They are extrinsic factors that server as rewards.
      Cultural Influences In US 80% of factors that lead to job satisfaction can be traced it to motivators. In other cultures this can change.
      Using Motivators and Hygienes This model appeals to managers as it gives straighforward suggestions on motivating people. But it has critics as well. One was the method bound process that was used to develop it. Another is it is unclear if satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate parts.
4. Motivating Employees Through Performance Expectations
   1. Expectancy Model
      The expectancy model says that people are motivated to work when they expect to achieve things they want from their jobs. Four assumptions are made here.
      • A combination of forces in the individual and the environment determine behavior.
      • Individuals decide their own behaviors even though organizations may place constraints are placed on individual behavior
      • Individuals have different needs and goals. Also they change over time
      • People decide among alternatives based on their perceptions of whether a specific behavior will lead to a desired outcome.
      There are things to help us understand things, they are called First-level and second-level outcomes, expectancy, valance, and instrumentality
      First-Level and Second-Level Outcomes Behavior associated with the job itself are first-level outcomes. Second-level outcomes are the positive or negative rewards associated with them.
      Expectancy If a person gives a particular level of effort, a certain level of performance should result, that is called expectancy. It can vary from 0, no chance, to 1 the fact that it will.
      Instrumentality This is the relationship between first-level and second-level outcomes. Ranges are -1 to +1. -1 indicates an inverse relationship, +1 indicates a normal relationship. 0 indicates there is no relation at all.
      Valance is the preference for a particular second level outcome. It is not just the level of reward, but what it means to the person receiving it. Negative outcomes, (lay offs), are ones to avoid. If it is 0 it does not affect things. Positive levels are preferable.
      Putting it all Together People expert work effort to achieve performance that leads to valued work-related outcomes.
      The Expectancy Model in Action If one studies hard, take good notes, attend classes regularly, then you can expect good grades. But maybe you only believe that you have a 20% chance of doing well. Then you will lower your effort. There are problems with this model because it makes wide assumptions and works best in cultures that emphasize internal attribution (like the US).
5. Motivating Employees Through Equity
   1. Equity Model:Balancing Inputs and Outcomes
      The equity model says that an individuals feelings of how she is treated in comparisons with others. It has 2 assumptions. 1) people evaluate interpersonal relationships like they would some product they are buying. 2) people do not operate in a vacuum. they make comparisons to what is going on around them.
      General Equity Model based on two variables: inputs and outcomes. Inputs are what an individuals contribute to exchanges. Outcomes are what the individual receives from they exchange. Multiple inputs and outcomes can muddle situations.
      Consequences of Inequity Inequity causes tension. Tension is not pleasure. People are motivated to get rid of inequity.
   2. Procedural Justice: Making Decisions Fairly
      The fairness of rules and procedures is referred to as procedural justice. A strong example would be people who survive a layoff. Those left behind can judge the fairness of the layoff in how it was handled. If fair, then people will feel more committed to the company.
6. Chapter Summary
7. Developing Competencies

Principles of Marketing

Principles of Marketing 10e

Chapter 5 Managing Marketing Information

Unit 5

1. Assessing Marketing Information Needs
   Marketing Information Systems balance the information users would like to have against what they need to have to do their job. occasionally the information may not be available. For that research may need to be done.
2. Developing Marketing Information
   1. Internal Data
      Internal databases are electronic collections of information obtained from data sources within the company. They are usually accessed more quickly and cheaply. One problem is that the data may not the meet then needs as it may have been collected for other needs.
   2. Marketing Intelligence
      Marketing Intelligence is the systematic collection and analysis of publicly available information about competitors and developments in the marketing environment. This information is available from many different sources. Some can even be word of mouth or just direct observation. Others can be legal but questionable such as searching publicly available dumpsters to get information on the company.
   3. Marketing Research
      Marketing researchis the systematic design, collection, analysis, and reporting of data relevant to a specific marketing situation facing an organization. Some companies have departments that focus on doing this. Smaller companies and sometimes these companies will use marketing and research companies.
      1. Defining the Problem and Research Objectives
         This is the hardest thing to do. You may bring your own bias as to why the problem exist and it may not be the right question asked. To do this you need to do one of three types of research. 1)Exploratory research which is research to gather preliminary information that will help define problems and suggest hypotheses. 2)Descriptive research, research to better describe marketing problems, situations, or markets, such as the market potential for a product or the demographics and attitudes of consumers. 3)Casual Research research to test hypotheses about cause-and-effect relationships.
      2. Developing the Research Plan
         Research objectives will need to be translated into specific information needs. This may be demographic information, usage patterns, attitudes as well as other things. The plan should be developed in to a written proposal. Both primary and secondary data will need to be collected.
      3. Gathering Secondary Data
         Secondary data information that already exist somewhere, having been collected for another purpose. Can be internal or can be purchased. For examples, grocery stores, especially ones with bonus clubs, can sell register information of what sells at what time. There are also online databases that can provide information like CompuServe, Dialog, and LEXIS-NEXIS. This type of data can present problems in that the needed information may not be available, or if available it is not usable. Researchers need to make sure that the information is accurate, relevant, current and impractical.
      4. Primary Data Collection
         • Research Approaches
           Observational research gathering of primary data by observing relevant people, actions and situations. Observers might go to a supermarket and observer the way people make purchasing decisions. Things can be observed by mechanical means as well (people meters on tv ratings machines). Cookies on a computer is another way of doing this. The most widely used method to collect this information is to ask them directly and is called survey research. Another information source is single-source data systems, electronic monitoring system that link consumers to television advertisements and promotions (measured using meters) with what they buy in stores (measured using check out scanners). Lastly experimental research is done. This is the gathering of primary data by selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them controlling related factors and checking for differences in group responses.
         • Contact Methods
           Information can be collected many ways. While mail questionnaires can prevent interviewers bias, they can take a long time to get back or may not come back at all. Telephone interviews are a good way but very often they can be confused with telemarketers, who have developed the questionnaire technique as a way to sell products. It is also higher in cost. Personal interviews, can come in individual and groups. Both involve talking with people directly and can be the most costly way of doing things. Group interviewing is sometimes done as focus groups. Lastly is Online (Internet) marketing research. This can be done in many ways.
         • Sampling Plan
           A sample is a segment of the population selected for marketing research to represent the population as a whole. One must decide three things in making this group; who should be interviewed, how many people should be interviewed, and how should they be chosen. These are often broken up into probability samples (random) and nonprobability samples (not random).
         • Research Instruments
           questionnaires and mechanical devices are the two instruments used by researchers. questionnaires are mot popular and they come in open and closed ended questions. Closed questionnaires tend to give you a collection of answers to choose from. Open ones let the respondent answer questions in their own words. researchers need to be careful in how the questions are worded and in what order as these can lead to biases.
      5. Implementing the Research Plan
         At this point collecting and processing the information should take place. Care should be taken to not let erroneous information be gathered.
      6. Interpreting and Reporting the Findings
         Once all done, conclusions need to be drawn. Managers and researchers need to work together with this to prevent bias from either group.
3. Analyzing Marketing Information
   1. Customer Relationship Management (CRM)
      CRM is managing detailed information about individual customers and carefully managing customer "touch points" in order to maximize customers loyalty. It consists of software that analyzes information in the company. The information is usually stored in data warehouses and is dug through using data mining techniques. The information should be kept in a secure location. For others to use this information could violate privacy.
4. Distributing and Using Marketing Information
   This information needs to be made available to people in the company so that they can make use of it. Usually this is set up with an intranet, an internal internet. Sometimes it can be used with suppliers in an extranet .
5. Other Marketing Information Consideration
   1. Marketing Research in Small Business and Not-for-Profit Organizations
      Small business can do marketing research in a simple way, Observe things! Watch their competitors ads, watch how many people are in their own store at any given time, go into competitors businesses to see how things are done. Another thing would be simple experiments, changing ads to see what works is one thing. Lastly, libraries can be be a good source of information.
   2. International Marketing Research
      International research can be a little bit more troublesome. Translations of the questionnaires can have problems when some idioms get translated. There may be some bias when it comes to answering questions to show the people are higher up the economics ladder than they are, or to not answer personal questions.
   3. Public Policy and Ethics in Marketing Research
      • Intrusions on Consumer Privacy
        Companies collecting data should not distribute personal information without permission of the people that information comes from, This becomes a matter of consumer privacy being violated. While it is OK to pass the information on in aggregate form, the collection and selling of this personal information can lead to trouble. Large companies may need to hire a Privacy officer who makes sure that the information is used appropriately.
      • Misuse of Research Findings
        By not designing the questions properly, or leaving out key information, some studies can be biased the wrong way. This needs to be watched for.
    

Organizational Behavior

Organizational Behavior 10e
Hellriegel and Slocum

Unit 3

Chapter 3

1. Preview Case: Naveen Jain at Info Space
2. The Perceptual Process
   Perception is the process by which people select, organize, interpret and respond to information from the world around them. SInce different people perceive things differently the keywords here are selection and organization. Managers need to be aware of the way that people select, organize and interpret their perceptions.
3. Perceptual Selection
   Why do you ignore barking dogs but hear a phone ringing, the answer is selective screening. You filter out what is not important based on certain factors.
   1. External Factors
      The following are external characteristics that cause people to notice things and the more likely way it will be noticed:
      • Size: Larger
      • Intensity: Brighter, forcefulnesses
      • Contrast: stand out from background
      • Motion: things moving
      • repetition: more repetition
      • Novelty and familiarity: strange things and common things both.
   2. Internal Factors
      1. Personality
         The way that you perceive the big 5 factors (chapter 2), will influence how you see the world around you.
      2. Learning
         The place you grew up, your age, and a number of other factors influence what the way you see things in life. Realize this when putting people together to work on teams and encourage them to learn to work together. Even hand signals can mean different things in different countries.
      3. Motivation
         Urgent needs and desires play a role in what OU will perceive as important at any time. Another factor in this is the pollen prizefight, the fact that pleasant things get more notice.
4. Person Perception
   Person perception is the process by which individuals attribute characteristics or traits to other people. It is what we refer to very often as the 'first impression" of a person and it revolves around:
   1. The perceived
      You will tend to evaluate people based on things you notice about them, the gender, skin color, posture, age, voice quality, facial expressions. These bring about implicit personality theories based on what you know.
   2. The Perceiver
      the fact that you may be from a different culture than the person you are perceiving affects what you see.
   3. The Situation
      Things and peoples around the person that you are perceiving will influence what you are thinking.
   4. Impression Management
      Impression management is the attempt to manipulate or control the impressions that others form about them.This happens often with people that are in charge of the person controlling the impression. It is not good or bad and some people focus on it more than others.
5. Perceptual Errors
   1. Accuracy of Judgement
      An inaccurate judgement of a person by a manager could result in and ruin their prospects. They include:
      • similarity: predisposed to people similar to you
      • Contrast error: comparing candidates against each other instead of against a standard needed
      • Overweighing of negative information: if negative information happens, it seems to weigh higher on the perception than it should.
      • Race, gender and age bias: Based on interviewers age he/she may be predisposed to the age of interviewer
      • First-impression error: once you get a first impression, no matter what else is there to change it, you will not.
      People need to learn to avoid generalizing from one trait, avoid assuming a behavior will be repeated, and avoid placing reliance on physical appearance.
   2. Perceptual Defense
      Perceptual defence is the tendency for people to protect themselves against ideas, objects and situations that are threatening.
   3. stereotyping
      stereotyping can cause problems when managers cannot look past gender, skin color, or age.
   4. Halo Effect
      The Halo effect come from one person judging another on just one attribute and ignoring all others.
   5. Projection
      Projection is the tendency to see your own traits in other people.
   6. Expectancy Effects
      Expectancy effect is the extent to which prior expectations bias perceptions of events, objects and people. Some things that can happen is the self fulfilling prophecy, the tendency that you will cause people to act the way that you expect them to. Another is the Pygmalion effect, the fact that you will hold the person to a higher standard and they will fulfill it.
6. Attibutions: Why People Behave as They Do
   The attribution process refers to the ways people come to understand the causes of their own and other's behaviors.
   1. The Attribution Process
      This process is done in order for people to make sense of things that are happening around them. It goes from information internal to the preceiver, added to what the preceiver believes and the motivations of the preceiver.
   2. Internal Versus External Causes of Behavior
      Internal causes are things that you belive are under a persons control External causes are things that you believe that are out of that persons control. You have to be careful to avoid the fundamental attribution error, the tendency to over or under estimate the personal factors in success or failure of a person. Managers can be part of this, attributing success to themselves but failures to their underlings. Or success for employees they expect it from and failure from those they expect it from.
   3. Attribution of Success and Failure
      People attribute their success or failure to four things
      1. Ability
      2. effort
      3. task difficulty
      4. luck
      Not surprisingly the self-serving bias comes into play here. If they do well, it is because of their ability and effort. If they do poorly it is because of difficulty and bad luck.

Principles of Marketing

Principles of Marketing 10e
Kotler, Armstrong

CHAPTER 3

MARKETING IN THE DIGITAL AGE:
MAKING NEW CUSTOMER CONNECTIONS

1. LOOKING AHEAD: PREVIEWING THE CONCEPTS
   A look at Charles Schwab and it choices in going on line or not.


2. MAJOR FORCES SHAPING THE INTERNET AGE
   1. Digitalization and Connectivity
      Intranets - Network that connects people within a company to each network and to the company network
      extranet - A network that connects a company with its suppliers and distributors
      internet- A vast public of computer networks connecting users of all types around the world.
   2. The Internet Explosion
      Growth of the internet has been from a techy few in the early 90's to 400 Million by the end of the 90's. It has helped to create a new economy.
   3. New Types of Intermediaries
      Because of the rise of the internet, companies had to decide how to modify their business to keep their channels happy on one side and not loose business to the internet upstarts on the other side. The had to decide to stay as brick and mortar or add to the click only companies and become click and mortar.
   4. Customization and Customerization
      The old economy focused on the standardization of products. The new economy focuses on customization, customizing a product for a customer, and customerization, letting a customer customize their purchase.
3. MARKETING STRATEGY IN THE NEW DIGITAL AGE
   In reality it will take a mixture of the old and new economies to survive in today's economy
   1. E-Business, E-Commerce, and E-Marketing in the New Digital Age
      1. E-Business
         The use of electronic platforms to conduct a company's business.
      2. E-Commerce
         Buying and selling process supported by electronic means, primarily by the Internet.
      3. E-Marketing
         The marketing side of e-commerce -- companies efforts to communicate about, promote, and sell products and services over the Internet.
   2. Benefits to Buyers
      There are many ways that benefit the buyer. They include: convenience, easy, private, product access and selection. It is also possible to gather information about products you are looking at as well as be interactive and immediate. Not all these are available in the non-internet world.
   3. Benefits to Sellers
      It is a powerful customer relationship building tool. While reducing cost it also increases speed and efficiency. flexibility is increased as well as it being global in nature.
4. E-COMMERCE DOMAINS
   1. B2C (Business to Consumer)
      The online selling of goods and services to final consumers.
      1. Online consumers
         Though people think of the on line user as the geek, in reality it is more a wide variety of people that transverses most socioeconomic categories. There is also a wide range in the age groups as well. Major difference is that the internet consumer is more the one to initialize the interaction and the one who tends to control it.
      2. B2C Web Sites
         Web sites are available for almost everything that you need. Still some people have trouble with this cause they cannot touch or feel anything.
   2. B2B (Business to Business)
      Though most emphasis is on the B2C more takes place Business to Business.
      1. Open trading networks
         Most of this takes place in open trading networks where businesses put up their needs and what they have available.
      2. Private trading networks
         Also available are Private trading networks, trading networks that link a particular seller with its own trading partners.
   3. C2C (Consumer to Consumer)
      The online exchange of goods and information between final consumers.
   4. C2B (Consumer to Business)
      Online exchanges in which consumers search out sellers, learn about their offers, and initiate purchases, sometimes even driving the transactions.
5. CONDUCTING E-COMMERCE
   1. Click-only versus Click-and-Mortar E-Marketers
      1. Click-only companies
         The so called dot-com companies that exist only online without any brick and mortar market presence. They range from Internet Service Providers (ISP) to e-tailers, companies that do all business on line. Many of the dot com companies burst because of a bad business model, spending more money to advertise themselves then they were bringing in.
      2. Click-and-Mortar Companies
         Traditional brick and mortar companies that have added e-marketing to their operations. Many traditional companies had problems in joining the market as they were afraid to alienate their current partners or to cannibalize their sales in their own stores. But many of them have come through stronger. This was because many of them were established names that people went with versus the unknown.
   2. Setting Up an E-Marketing Presence
      1. Creating a Web Site
         1. corporate web site
            A web site designed to build customer goodwill and to supplement other sales channels, rather than to sell the company's products directly.
         2. Marketing web site
            A web site that engages consumers in interactions that will move them closer to a direct purchase or other marketing outcome.
         
         The seven C's of effective web design should be focused on when designing a site
         • context
         • content
         • community
         • customization
         • communications
         • connection
         • commerce
      2. Placing ads and promotions online
         Online advertising appears while consumers are surfing the web and include banner, ticker ads, intersitials and skyscrapers. Another form is viral marketing, using word of mouth (or word of email, chatroom, etc) to get people to come to visit your site.
      3. Creating or participating in web communities
         Web Sites which members can congregate and exchange views on issues of common interest. Because people are drawn their for the content, it is safe to assume that you could use that to specialize the ads to the site.
      4. Using E-mail and webcasting
         Emailing involves collecting names of people interested in your product and sending them regular advertising that interest them. Webcasting is the automatic downloading of customized information of interest to the owner of the PC. Also known as Push.
6. THE PROMISE AND CHALLENGES OF E-COMMERCE
   1. The Continuing Promise of E-Commerce
      The promise that the Internet would replace all ways of doing things has always been over rated. For the most part, it will remain part of the mix of things done by marketers.
   2. The Web's Darker Side
      1. Internet profitability
         because of the volume of information, customer's attention can easily be diverted. Also, marketing is hard to do in an area where things can be so tightly narrowed down. Many sites will go unnoticed because of this.
      2. Legal and ethical issues
         1. online privacy and security
            Like other companies, web sites can collect information. There are the facts that this information could fall into wrong hands, especially with the companies failing and their assets being sold. Customers also are concerned with people hacking into the information that is kept as well. It is up to the company to protect the customer
         2. other legal and ethical issues
            Because of lack of personal contact, internet fraud is a high concern. Also the fact that this market tends to divide or segment the population, only the more affluent having access to it. Lastly their is the problem of unauthorized access to information.
7. LOOKING BACK: REVIEWING THE CONCEPTS

Data Modeling

Database Systems 5e; Rob Cornel

Unit2

Chapter 2

1. A Logical view of data
   1. Entities and Attributes
      Entity something that we need to collect data on.
      Entity Set named collection of entities
      Attributes characteristics of an entity
   2. Tables and Their characteristics
      Table a two dimensional structure composed of rows and columns, a group of related entities. Tables are the easiest way for us to visualize the data. Important characteristics of a relational table
      1. perceived as two dimensional structure composed of rows and columns
      2. Each table row (tuple) represents a single entity within the entity set
      3. Each table column represents an attribute, and each column has a distinct name
      4. Each table must have an attribute or combination of attributes that uniquely identifies each row
      5. All values in a column must conform to the same data format. Example: attribute is assigned integer format, all values must be integers
      6. Each column has a specific range of values known as the attribute domain
      7. The order of rows and columns is immaterial to the DBMS
      The various data types break down as follows:
      • Numeric: strictly numbers that can be manipulated by mathematics
      • character: text or numbers not for mathematics computations.
      • Date: Specific day, usually in the Julian calendar format
      • Logical: true or false, yes or no, 1 or 0
      Each table must have a primary key, something that uniquely identifies a row in the table. In can be one or a combination of attributes. A range of permissible values for an attribute is the domain.
2. Keys
   A key is one or more attribute that uniquely identify an entity. There are other keys besides the primary key talked about already. Keys are used to find determination, this means that knowing the value of one item we can look up or determine the value of another attribute. It is usually written in the format A -> B. If multiples it would be A -> B,C,D. Related to this is functional dependence, where the value of B is functionally dependant of A if A determines or returns only one value of B. If it takes more that one key to show determination, then we have a composite key. Any part of this composite is a key attribute. A superkey is any key that determines each entity uniquely. A candidate key is the same but without redundancies. A superkey can be multiple keys even if one could stand by itself. the candidate key means it can stand by itself to give desired results. Null values, or values that have no value, are not allowed in a key value. A foreign key represents an attribute whose value matches the primary key in a related table. referential integrity is maintained if the foreign key contains a value that returns a valid row (tuple). A secondary key is one for retrieval purposes only. It helps in narrowing down a search if one does not know the primary key.
3. Integrity Rules Revisited
   Database's should have entity integrity each entity is represented by a primary key. It should also have referential integrity, where a foreign key returns a unique entity. In some cases a dummy variable may be necessary for this, or a null value. For integrity it is better to use a dummy or flag variable as nulls cause problems with data integrity.
4. Relational Database Operators
   Relational Algebra manipulating table contents using the eight relational operators.
   1. Union - combines all rows from two tables. (columns and domains must be identical or union compatible)
   2. Intersect - only the rows that appear in both tables. Must be union compatible
   3. Difference - all rows in one table that are not found in another table. Must be union compatible
   4. Product - all possible pairs of rows from two tables.
   5. Select - returns values for rows that mach specifications, or if none given will return all
   6. Project - returns all values for a selected attribute. Attributes can be combined.
   7. Join - Combines information in two tables that have a relationship. Multiple types of joins    
      1. Natural Join - it is broken into three steps
         1. a product of the two tables.
         2. This product fed through select so that only related columns displayed - this returns joined columns
          
         3. A project is then done to return only non-redundant information
          
      2. equi Join - tables linked on basis of equality if not equal it is referred to as theta Join
      3. outer Join - matched pairs retained and others left null. Broken down into left and right
   8. Divide
5. The Data Dictionary and the System Catalog
   The data dictionary is the information about the database. It contains at a minimum the all the attribute names and characteristics for each table in a system. This is defined as the metadata or data about the data. The system catalog would contain more detailed information about the database including the file structure, creator and other important data. It will check for homonyms in the database, same attribute names in different tables that mean different things. It will also check for synonyms, different names to describe the same attribute.
6. Relationships Within the Relational Database
   To explain the relationships in a database we use entity relationship (E-R) models. There are two types, 1) Crow's feet and 2) Chen. Chen is better used for conceptual material, Crow's feet better for implementation. They have been explained in notes for last chapter and do not bear repeating here.
7. Data redundancy Revisited
   Foreign keys will minimize data redundancy, but will not eliminate it altogether. Though we should strive to eliminate data redundancy there may be times when it is necessary evil. In a retail business it is possible that a sales invoice would result in certain price, but that price for a product may change the next day. Changing the price in the database would change the reflections of sales for that day. So even though line_price in the invoice may be the same as product_price in the inventory, it is best to separate them (though the relationship could be used to populate the fields upon initial use.
8. Indexes
   An index is used to locate information in the database quicker. It wold be the equivalent of using the index in a book to find data rather than having to read the whole book to get the same data.

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